bowler, read the following carefully...
The fuzzy Schroedinger-Heisenberg-Born picture of atomic orbitals as probability waves (in which the probability of finding the electron is proportional to the square of the wavefunction) is completely false.
The involvement of Rutherford:
Around 1911, Rutherford carried out an experiment where he assumed far too much about matter without the necessary tools or equipment to substantiate his notions and beliefs. His research based on observational illusions and the chemical model introduced by Davy around 1810. At the time, Rutherford knew very little about the nature of metals, or the properties of atoms, so he drew his conclusions based on the accepted electro-chemical theory, observations, and here again, observational illusions distracted Rutherford from making the correct conclusions. As the next several Chapters explain, in the explorative research stage, with a high probability of error, Rutherford drew three conclusions far too early, which he promoted as true. Owing to his flawed experimental design, his analysis and research conclusions produced an atomic model that failed to explain Nature's Chemistry. With scientific acceptance coming through the backdoor, 'Since Rutherford shattered the atom which Chemistry states as indivisible, then his atomic model must be true.' As a junction point, the acceptance and promotion of Bohr's atomic model by Rutherford, introduced many scientific mysteries. So poor the Rutherford concept in explanation, Chemistry maintained the 1806 atomic model introduced by Dalton, because many crystal and molecular structures defined chemical precision, described and explained by chemical alignment, bond position, bond-length, bond strength and structure, all of which instantly became scientific mysteries.
When Rutherford proposed his atomic model, he used a Gold-leaf electroscope to measure the strength of the alpha-particle radiation passing through the metal foil. Rutherford's lack on knowledge about matter and the primitive technology of the time, caused him to wrongfully conclude the atom as being 99.9999% empty space. Many years later, the differences between metallic bonds and normal chemical bonds were identified. Unfortunately, Science turned a blind-eye to the fact that the electron cloud atomic models are wrong.
In 1913, there was no knowledge of microwaves, single side band transmissions, frequency modulation, nor was there any knowledge of radio astronomy, and very little known of frequencies above ultra-violet or below infrared. It is accepted as fact that 'all the theories in Physics have limitation that breakdown and that these theories become less accurate as the speed is made to approach the speed of light'. Without any rules to guide him, without following the scientific method, Bohr suggested a radical hypothesis. He quantised mass, energy and the orbital parameters, including the speed of the electron in orbit, at a quantised orbital height, that excited Rutherford and would be accepted in giving credence to an unnatural atomic model. Through direct reasoning Bohr derived a mathematical short-cut to describe what seemed to be Hydrogen spectral lines. His solution is a ruthless empirical short-cut or mathematical trick that appears to work. He did so without involving any natural mechanism or contemplating Hydrogen's molecular and crystalline state. Bohr deduced, the larger his quantum number, the larger the atom and the slower the orbital frequency, thereby increasing the period of time for the atom to transit from one state to the next. Quantum theory needed to explain light in quantum steps, so from this deluded notion about Nature and matter, came another deluded notion.
Thomson battled the terrestrial illusion of exploding chemical batteries, for the ignorant argued that when charges neutralise, the atom must short out and explode. During this time of enormous change, electric lights replaced gas mantles in the streets, theatre, and in the home; motor vehicles began replacing the horse and cart; Marconni retaliated and attacked the arrogant scientific community's pecuniary rejection of radio transmission; while world politics rapidly headed to a point of starting the war to end all wars. With so little known, about the atom, about electricity, about magnetism, about gravity, about radiation, about the magnetic spectrum, speculation and errors hijacked the sciences creating self-proving tendentious theory based on terrestrial illusions.
In point, Bohr suggested a means preventing the atom exploding when charges neutralise. Although the concept of a central positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting negatively charged electrons seemed to remove the acceptance problems in Thomson's model, explaining the theory of octaves by deception, it won some academic acceptance. Many found the model very difficult to use, having inherent real world animation problems. By 1912, Rutherford's education, his acceptance of the Bohr construct and his subsequent experiments on thin metal foils, led him to introduce this construct as his revolutionary atomic model; where the negative electrons orbit the positive nucleus. On paper, the static atomic model seems to satisfy the chemist's bonding requirements, placing the bonding electrons in the atom's outer orbital shell. Unfortunately, as Chemical theory promoted the fact of an indivisible atom, Rutherford's atomic model won popular appeal through default, due to the fact that the daily news carried various headlines stating in bold type, 'Rutherford splits the atom.' Because Chemistry got it so wrong, gullible people assumed that Rutherford's other claims must be right, and therefore, electrons do orbit the nucleus. Enthusiastically, the youth of the day accepted the assumption as an assertion of fact, and with these preconditioned beliefs, many knowledge viruses spread and mutated.
Indoctrination created Chemistry's biggest problem, a closed mind-set where the chemical sciences place Davy's electrochemical theory, the electron-cloud atomic model and valency, as being above Nature. The currently accepted electron cloud atomic model may appear wonderful when sketched on paper, however, any three dimensional animation of such a model instantly generates unsolvable problems that serve to confuse. Although claimed to be like the Solar System, with a central body, orbited by electrons, that any astronomer should be able to compute, Chemistry and Quantum theory deliberately mystify the theory's abject failure, calling on the uncertainty principle and peer pressure to give this model credibility. Without giving the student any other option, educators overcome a student's acceptance problem through stealth, 'Well suppose this is true, then, this must occur and here you see that it does...'
Chemistry's acceptance of this flawed electron-cloud atomic model seems enigmatic for it confuses everything, to such a degree that although Chemistry expounds great knowledge about molecular structures, bond lengths, bond angles, bond strengths and molecular properties, the replaced Dalton atomic model must be used when explaining simple molecular structures. As a knowledge virus, the electron cloud atomic model fails Science, with poorly conceived, illogical and invalid atomic-chemical theory presented as fact.
According to Bohr's version of the electro-chemical theory, each atom tends to form a complete inert atom, and so requires a total of eight electrons in the atom's outer orbital shell to satisfy the molecule's over-all atomic structure. This means that each atom must share one or more electrons, so that each atom in the molecule effectively carries '8' electrons in the outer shell. When satisfied, the reaction ceases, as the molecule can no longer enter other reactions. This naive, mystical, and mythical belief established itself in the foundation stone of the modern periodic table and Chemistry. However, since the animated Rutherford atomic model fails to explain simple chemical reactions and molecular alignment, in adopting many of Chemistry's invalid notions, and whatever else fitted, Chemistry gave birth to a mutant off-spring, Quantum Theory. Through a process of guesstimations and closest-fit approximations, Niels Bohr determined the Periodic Table's present shape.
Rutherford, in deducing the existence of the atomic nucleus from his bombardment of metal films with alpha particles, made a possibly incorrect deduction. Rather than a tiny, massive nucleus at the center of a frothy, electron-filled atom, Rutherford's experiment could be equally well interpreted as indicating a tiny atom surrounded by nothing except energy fields. Thus, a return to the Daltonian atom, a featureless sphere of the size we associate with what we call the atomic nucleus.
With Rutherford's assumption quickly elevated to unquestioned fact, it became necessary to pile assumption upon rickety assumption to account for observed phenomena in terms of an internal atomic structure that did not really exist. The prime architects of this supposedly fallacious mass of atomic theory and the villains of Larson's drama were Niels Bohr, who quantized the nonexistent electrons within the atom, and Werner K. Heisenberg who dragged in Uncertainty to account of everything that could not otherwise be taken care of.
Here, bowler, are J. Chadwick's own words, in which he tells us HE DISCOVERED NO PARTICLE (NEUTRON) AT ALL:
Up to the present, all the evidence is in favour of the neutron, while the quantum hypothesis can only be upheld if the conservation of energy and momentum be relinquished at some point.
Which is it to be? Will you believe, for belief is what is being demanded, in the neutron? Or are you prepared to overturn the laws of physics? Even Chadwick seems shocked at the choice he offers. He relents at the last, and the paper coasts to a close with a postponement of judgement at some point.
W. Pauli used the same terminology and words to describe his "discoveries":
The neutrino must exist, Pauli reasoned, because otherwise the atomic process known as beta decay would violate the physical laws of conservation of energy and conservation of angular momentum.
But, the law of conservation of energy will be violated each and every time we access the aether, as Tesla has shown a long time ago.